Scholars; Ballers

Numerous studies and sciences flourished under the prosperity and eclectic integration of Islamic culture and civilization during the Abbasid Caliphate. Scholars, many of whom came from wealthy backgrounds, found themselves stimulated and encouraged by the world around them. With so little knowledge previously attained, so much was available for gain. Relative to the rest of the world at the time, Islam was in a veritable era of enlightenment. Many of those studying, researching, and experimenting in and around the cultural hub of Baghdad made advancements both specialized and generalized that shaped, and, in many cases, created, some of today’s most prominent and paramount schools and disciplines.

Two such scholars are Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, an astronomer and mathematician, and Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn Isḥāq al-Kindī, who, though he is most commonly cited for his philosophical treatises, was exceptionally studious and influential in seemingly every science he explored. Though there was little overlap in their specific endeavors, both worked to incorporate and learn from the Greek scholars of the past, who the Europeans had long-since disregarded and would not reinvestigate until the extent of their knowledge had already been tapped by Islamic civilization.

Abd al-Rahman al-Sufi, or, as he is known in the Western world, Azophi, was born on the seventh of December in the year 903, according to the Gregorian calendar. A Persian, Al-Sufi was raised and lived his entire life in the comfort of Emire Add ad-Daula’s court in Isfahan. Though he was an expert in both mathematics and astronomy, the former was more a facilitator of his successes in the latter, rather than a dedicated focus of its own.

Al-Sufi began his studies on the foundations laid by Ptolemy in his Mathematike Syntaxis (“The Mathematical Arrangement”), which was translated into Arabic under the Abbasids in 827. The translated work was titled Almagest, a corruption of the Greek word, megiste, meaning “greatest”. Al-Sufi was the first to attempt to relate Greek and Arabic astrology through star names and constellations (a difficult task due to marginal concurrence) in his most lasting and notable publication, Kitab al-Kawatib al-Thabit al-Musawwar (“Book of Fixed Stars”).

The book was a calculated documentation of the celestial globe, as written and illustrated in accordance with Greek and Arabic astronomy. In it, al-Sufi corrected many errors in Ptolemy’s data, particularly the brightness and magnitudes of various stars. He presented 1,018 stars by constellation, each depicted by two illustrations: one from outside (as it would appear in the context of space), and one from within the celestial globe (as it would appear from Earth). Several astral bodies debut in the book, among them the Omnicrum Velorum cluster and the Large Magellanic Cloud (al-Bakr, or “White Ox”), which he also noted was only visible from Southern Arabia, near the Strait of Babd al-Mandab. The work is also the first known documentation of the Andromeda Galaxy. Called “Little Cloud” and drawn near the mouth of the Arabic constellation, “Big Fish,” the galaxy is proved to’ve been discovered at least 648 years before the invention of the telescope enabled its premier in European science (it is speculated that Andromeda had actually been known by Isfahan astronomers even before 905).

Al-Sufi also wrote on and proposed many different uses and applications of the astrolabe, which had been appropriated into Islamic study by fellow mathematician and astronomer, Abu abdallah Muhammad ibn Ibrahim al-Fazari. He died on the 25th of May in the year 986.

To this day, Kitab al-Kawatib al-Thabit al-Musawwar is used to study and observe proper motions and long-period variables of the stars. Additionally, many of the star names assigned by al-Sufi are still used, though in their corrupted Western forms. Beyond these examples, the direct and indirect contributions and influence of al-Sufi’s work are difficult to quantify, but the significance of his highly-advanced celestial mapping is undeniable. Though it took the Europeans quite some time before they were able to accept his work into their own studies, it eventually provided them with access to two cultures’ worth of compiled astronomic calculation and study, surely catalyzing further progression and development. Acknowledging this, the astronomy community has paid respect by naming both a lunar crater (Azophi) and a minor planet (12621 Alsufi) after him.

Though he is most acclaimed for his philosophical treatises, Abū Yūsuf Yaʻqūb ibn Isḥāq al-Kindī, or Alkindus to the West, was a scholar of virtually established study of his day (astrology, astronomy, cosmology, chemistry, logic, mathematics, music, physics, psychology, and meteorology, among others). Descendent of the Kinda tribe originating in Najd, al-Kindī was born, raised, and received his early education in Kufa before moving to Baghdad, where he thenceforth found himself in steady employ of the caliphs to continue his research and teaching.

Al-Kindī was the first Muslim Peripatetic philosopher, drawing from separately from Aristotle and Plato’s teachings to introduce Greek and Hellenistic culture and philosophy to the Arab world. His most lasting work is On First Philosophy, in which he puts forth the introductory thought and insights that establish him as the first legitimate Muslim philosopher. Al-Kindī’s writing sees an obvious parallel between metaphysics (which, he said, is the knowledge of God) and theology. He describes God as an absolute one, composed of a solitary body, contrasted by the rest of existence, which, though possibly singular in a particular context, is invariably multiple in another. A flock of birds may only be one flock, but that one flock is comprised of multiple birds. The one God, however, is comprised solely of Himself. Additionally, al-Kindī writes of God as a Creator, and that the universe is of his deliberate action. Both of these theories were disputed by later Muslim philosophers, but their concepts have nonetheless withstood.

Other major focuses of al-Kindī’s philosophical writing included an epistemologic assertion of humanity’s limited perception relative to universal concepts and truths, an immaterial soul, journeying to the afterlife with the corporeal form as little more than vessel (much in cue with myriad other faiths and philosophies), and progressive validation and qualification of philosophers versus prophets and the disparity between their communication and projection of ideas.

Al-Kindī’s other advancements were as many as they were varied. Appointed to the House of Wisdom by the caliph, he contributed many translated texts to the progressive library. A cryptologist, he introduced Indian numerals to Islamic and Christian study and developed the frequency analysis method of solving ciphers. This mathematics familiarity, coupled with experience in medicine, enabled him to create a scale by which a medicine’s potency could be quantified, an invaluable step in pharmacology. A chemist, he was the first to debunk alchemy on the whole - in particular the potential transformation of crude materials into silver or gold - in his works, Warning Against the Deceptions of the Alchemists and Refutation of the Claim of Those Who Claim the Artificial Fabrication of Gold and Silver. He also was the first to isolate ethanol, contributing to its now countless uses. Al-Kindī compared and contrasted Aristotelian and Eclidian physics, particularly in the realm of optics, deeming Euclidian the more accurate of the two schools by his shared theory of light rays following a straight path, now accepted as fact. Adept with scent, he is credited as the father of the perfume industry. Pioneering experimental psychology, he revealed that sensation is proportionate to stimulus, studied dream theories and interpretation, and practiced mental and physical music therapy. Perhaps most curiously, al-Kindī also wrote the earliest known investigation of environmentalism and pollution, discussing resource contamination and improper waste disposal, insight that is all too relevant today.

While the afore list in no way fully encompasses the breadth and ripple of al-Kindī’s accomplishments, it is at least indicative of how immense his influence was and is to philosophy and the sciences. The importance of the isolation of alcohol and the quantification of medicinal effects alone are obvious in their significance, drastically progressing scientific and medical exploration. Al-Kindī’s philosophy is still studied in the modern context, and was continually present throughout the development of both Eastern and Western thought.

Because so little concentrated study and research had been done, and even less was readily documented and available, the era of the Abbasid Caliphate was prime for progress. Because many schools of knowledge were still in their infancy, becoming an expert and studying in several fields simultaneously was an entirely feasible task. This cooperative collaboration of intellectual wealth fostered a productive and enlightening era, conducive to the countless advancements and developments that have defined many modern practices.